Protein / Translation

What do muscles, hair and the hormone insulin have in common? Right! They all consist of proteins.

Proteins are the building blocks and workers of our cells. Roll over the image to see a few examples of what proteins can perform in the human body.

proteins »

How does something so seemingly simple as DNA's long sequence, composed of only four different letters, get converted into the 100,000 or so different kinds of protein molecules that perform the daily work in our body? This is accomplished by the cell's protein-making factory and is called translation.

DNA Replication

Every cell has to contain the precious book of life, the DNA. To make this possible, a complex machinery, like a copying machine, copies the cells DNA before it divides. That way each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the dividing cell's DNA. This doubling of DNA is called replication.
schematic illustration»

In addition to this "copying machine" cells have evolved mechanisms to correct mistakes that sometimes occur during DNA replication, a DNA repair system. Abnormalities in these processes, copying and repairing, result in a failure of accurate replication and maintenance of DNA - a failure that can have disastrous consequences, such as the development of cancer.

Thus replication constitutes the fundamental condition for biological growth (cell division) and transmission of genetic information, DNA, from one generation to another (reproduction).

RNA-Transcription

We earlier imagined DNA as an instruction book. Let's even make it a reference book. When you need information about something you make a copy of the pages (genes) you're interested in, returning the book to the library. This way you don't have to risk losing or destroying the book.

In all eucaryotic cells DNA never leaves the nucleus, instead the genetic code (the genes) is copied into RNA which then in turn is decoded (translated) into proteins in the cytoplasm. Why? Wouldn't it be smarter if DNA itself was translated into proteins in the cytoplasm instead of using a RNA intermediate?
The answer, for many reasons, is no. One important reason is security. The cytoplasm is a dangerous environment for the DNA and the daily transcription of genes to proteins would be very harmful to the DNA, which has to stay intact in order to maintain life. Therefore, RNA works as a sort of throw-away version of DNA (like the copies from the reference book) - good for limited work but not for long-term storage. Another reason is to regulate the rate of protein synthesis. This will be further discussed in the section about protein-translation.

DNA/Replication

As you might have noticed you are a mixture of your biological parents and preceding generations. Maybe you've got your mothers nose and your fathers eyes. How can that be? Something must carry that information between the generations.

DNA is the physical carrier of inheritance. It is like a giant book of information containing all the instructions for building and maintaining a living organism.
DNA »

Replication followed by cell division is the answer to one of life's most interesting questions: How can the union of a single sperm and an egg become a five-trillion-cell baby, all containing the same DNA?

DNA-RNA-Protein

Introduction

DNA carries the genetic information of a cell and consists of thousands of genes. Each gene serves as a recipe on how to build a protein molecule. Proteins perform important tasks for the cell functions or serve as building blocks. The flow of information from the genes determines the protein composition and thereby the functions of the cell.

The DNA is situated in the nucleus, organized into chromosomes. Every cell must contain the genetic information and the DNA is therefore duplicated before a cell divides (replication). When proteins are needed, the corresponding genes are transcribed into RNA (transcription). The RNA is first processed so that non-coding parts are removed (processing) and is then transported out of the nucleus (transport). Outside the nucleus, the proteins are built based upon the code in the RNA (translation).

The document has two levels, basic and advanced. This page is an introduction to both levels. You start at the basic level, then you can advance if you want more and deeper information.

Allegra--types of drugs

What is Allegra?

Allegra (fexofenadine) is an antihistamine that reduces the effects of natural chemical histamine in the body. Histamine can produce symptoms of sneezing, itching, watery eyes, and runny nose.

Allegra is used to treat the symptoms of seasonal allergies (hay fever) in adults and children.

Allegra is also used to treat skin itching and hives caused by a condition called chronic idiopathic urticaria in adults and children.

Allegra may also be used for purposes not listed in this medication guide.

Important information about Allegra

Ask a doctor or pharmacist before taking Allegra if you are allergic to any drugs, or if you have kidney disease.

Fruit juices and certain antacids can make it harder for your body to absorb Allegra. Take the disintegrating tablet on an empty stomach, at least 1 hour before or 2 hours after a meal.

There may be other drugs that can affect Allegra. Tell your doctor about all medications you use. This includes prescription, over-the-counter, vitamin, and herbal products. Do not start a new medication without telling your doctor.

Stop using Allegra and get emergency medical help if you think you have used too much medicine, or if you have any of these signs of an allergic reaction: hives; difficulty breathing; swelling of your face, lips, tongue, or throat.

Tell your doctor if your symptoms do not improve, or if they get worse after you start taking Allegra. Never take more of the medication than your doctor has prescribed.

Before taking Allegra

Ask a doctor or pharmacist if it is safe for you to take Allegra if you are allergic to any drugs, or if you have kidney disease.

FDA pregnancy category C. It is not known whether Allegra will harm an unborn baby. Tell your doctor if you are pregnant or plan to become pregnant while using this medicine. It is not known whether fexofenadine passes into breast milk or if it could harm a nursing baby. Do not use this medication without telling your doctor if you are breast-feeding a baby. Allegra tablets and capsules may be used to treat seasonal allergy symptoms in children who are at least 6 years old. Allegra oral suspension (liquid) may be used in children ages 2 through 11. When treating chronic idiopathic urticaria, the liquid may be used in children as young as 2 months old. Do not give this medicine to a child without medical advice.

See also: Allegra pregnancy and breastfeeding warnings (in more detail)

How should I take Allegra?

Use Allegra exactly as directed on the label, or as prescribed by your doctor. Do not use in larger or smaller amounts or for longer than recommended.

Take the regular tablet with a full glass of water. Do not use any other type of liquid. Shake the oral suspension (liquid) well just before you measure a dose. To be sure you get the correct dose, measure the liquid with a marked measuring spoon or medicine cup, not with a regular table spoon. If you do not have a dose-measuring device, ask your pharmacist for one.

To take fexofenadine orally disintegrating tablets (Allegra ODT):

· Keep the tablet in its blister pack until you are ready to take the medicine. Open the package and peel back the foil from the tablet blister. Do not push a tablet through the foil or you may damage the tablet.

· Using dry hands, remove the tablet and place it in your mouth. It will begin to dissolve right away.

· Do not swallow the tablet whole. Allow it to dissolve in your mouth without chewing.

· Swallow several times as the tablet dissolves. If desired, you may drink liquid to help swallow the dissolved tablet.

Take the Allegra disintegrating tablet on an empty stomach, at least 1 hour before or 2 hours after a meal.

Tell your doctor if your symptoms do not improve, or if they get worse after you start taking Allegra. Never take more of the medication than your doctor has prescribed.

Store Allegra at room temperature away from moisture and heat. Keep the medicine bottle tightly closed.

What happens if I miss a dose?

Since cold or allergy medicine is taken as needed, you may not be on a dosing schedule. If you are taking the medication regularly, take the missed dose as soon as you remember. Skip the missed dose if it is almost time for your next scheduled dose. Do not take extra medicine to make up the missed dose.

What happens if I overdose?

Seek emergency medical attention or call the Poison Help line at 1-800-222-1222.

Overdose symptoms may include dry mouth, dizziness, or drowsiness.

What should I avoid while taking Allegra?

Avoid using antacids within 15 minutes before or after taking a medication that contains Allegra. Antacids can make it harder for your body to absorb this medication.

Do not take Allegra with fruit juice (such as apple, orange, or grapefruit).

Avoid taking any other cold or allergy medicines unless your doctor has told you to.

Allegra side effects

Get emergency medical help if you have any of these signs of an allergic reaction to Allegra: hives; difficulty breathing; swelling of your face, lips, tongue, or throat. Stop taking Allegra and call your doctor if you have fever, chills, body aches, cough, or other flu symptoms.

Less serious Allegra side effects may include:

· nausea, diarrhea, upset stomach;

· menstrual cramps;

· drowsiness, tired feeling;

· headache; or

· muscle or back pain.

This is not a complete list of side effects and others may occur. Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088.

See also: Allegra side effects (in more detail)

What other drugs will affect Allegra?

Before taking this medication, tell your doctor if you regularly use other medicines that make you sleepy (such as cold or allergy medicine, sedatives, narcotic pain medicine, sleeping pills, muscle relaxers, and medicine for seizures, depression, or anxiety). They can add to sleepiness caused by Allegra.

Tell your doctor about all other medicines you use, especially:

· ketoconazole (Nizoral); or

· erythromycin (E.E.S., EryPed, Ery-Tab, Erythrocin, Pediazole).

This list is not complete and other drugs may interact with Allegra. Tell your doctor about all medications you use. This includes prescription, over-the-counter, vitamin, and herbal products. Do not start a new medication without telling your doctor.

Advair--types of drugs

What is Advair?

Advair contains fluticasone and salmeterol. Fluticasone is a steroid. Advair prevents the release of substances in the body that cause inflammation. Salmeterol is a bronchodilator. It works by relaxing muscles in the airways to improve breathing.

Advair is used to prevent asthma attacks. It is also used to prevent flare-ups or worsening of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) associated with chronic bronchitis and/or emphysema.

Advair may also be used for other purposes not listed in this medication guide.

Important information about Advair

Do not use Advair to treat an asthma attack that has already begun.

Salmeterol may increase the risk of asthma-related death. Use only the prescribed dose of Advair, and do not use it for longer than your doctor recommends. Follow all patient instructions for safe use. Talk with your doctor about your individual risks and benefits of using this medication.

Before using Advair, tell your doctor if you have a food or drug allergy, heart disease, high blood pressure, a seizure disorder, an infection, a weak immune system, diabetes, glaucoma, tuberculosis, osteoporosis, a thyroid disorder, or liver disease.

Seek medical attention if you think any of your asthma medications are not working as well as usual. An increased need for medication could be an early sign of a serious asthma attack. If you use a peak flow meter at home, call your doctor if your numbers are lower than normal.

Before using Advair

Do not use Advair if you are allergic to fluticasone (Flonase, Flovent), salmeterol (Serevent), or milk proteins, or if you are having an asthma attack or severe COPD symptoms.

To make sure you can safely use Advair, tell your doctor if you have any of these other conditions:

· a food or drug allergy;

· heart disease or high blood pressure;

· epilepsy or other seizure disorder;

· any type of infection;

· a weak immune system;

· diabetes;

· glaucoma;

· tuberculosis;

· osteoporosis;

· a thyroid disorder; or

· liver disease.

FDA pregnancy category C. It is not known whether Advair is harmful to an unborn baby. Tell your doctor if you are pregnant or plan to become pregnant while using this medication. It is not known whether fluticasone and salmeterol passes into breast milk or if it could harm a nursing baby. Do not use Advair without telling your doctor if you are breast-feeding a baby.

See also: Advair pregnancy and breastfeeding warnings (in more detail)

Advair can affect growth in children. Talk with your doctor if you think your child is not growing at a normal rate while using this medication.

Do not give this medication to a child younger than 4 years old.

Long-term use of steroids may lead to bone loss (osteoporosis), especially if you smoke, if you do not exercise, if you do not get enough vitamin D or calcium in your diet, or if you have a family history of osteoporosis.

How should I use Advair?

Use Advair exactly as it was prescribed for you. Do not use Advair in larger amounts, or use it for longer than recommended by your doctor. Follow all patient instructions for safe use.

Advair comes with patient instructions for safe and effective use, and directions for priming the inhaler device if needed. Follow these directions carefully.

Salmeterol may increase the risk of asthma-related death. Talk with your doctor about your individual risks and benefits of using this medication.

Do not use Advair to treat an asthma attack that has already begun. It will not work fast enough. Use only a fast-acting inhalation medication.

Advair Diskus is a powder form of fluticasone and salmeterol that comes with a special inhaler device pre-loaded with blister packs containing measured doses of the medicine. The device opens and loads a blister each time you use the inhaler. This device is not to be used with a spacer.

Advair HFA is an aerosol form of fluticasone and salmeterol that comes in a canister that is used with an actuator inhaler device. Use only the inhaler device provided with Advair HFA. This device is not to be used with a spacer.

Shake the Advair HFA inhaler for at least 5 seconds before each spray.

Keep track of the number of sprays you have used and throw away the Advair HFA canister after 120 sprays, even if it feels like there is still medicine in it.

If you also use a steroid medication, do not stop using the steroid suddenly or you may have unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. Talk with your doctor about using less and less of the steroid before stopping completely.

Carry an identification card or wear a medical alert ID to let others know that you may need an oral steroid in an emergency.

Seek medical attention if you think any of your asthma medications are not working as well as usual. An increased need for medication could be an early sign of a serious asthma attack. If you use a peak flow meter at home, call your doctor if your numbers are lower than normal.

Use all of your medications as directed by your doctor. Talk with your doctor if your medications do not seem to work as well in treating or preventing attacks. Do not change your doses or medication schedule without advice from your doctor.

Store Advair at room temperature away from moisture and heat. Keep the Advair HFA canister away from high heat, such as open flame or in a car on a hot day. The canister may explode if it gets too hot.

What happens if I miss a dose?

Use the missed dose as soon as you remember. Skip the missed dose if it is almost time for your next scheduled dose. Do not use extra medicine to make up the missed dose.

What happens if I overdose?

Seek emergency medical attention or call the Poison Help line at 1-800-222-1222. Overdose symptoms may include angina or chest pain, fast or irregular heartbeats, seizures, tremor, weakness, headache, nausea, and vomiting.

What should I avoid while using Advair?

Do not use a second form of salmeterol (such as Serevent) or use a similar inhaled bronchodilator such as formoterol (Foradil) unless your doctor has told you to.

Advair can lower the blood cells that help your body fight infections. Avoid being near people who are sick or have infections. Call your doctor for preventive treatment if you are exposed to chicken pox or measles. These conditions can be serious or even fatal in people who are using steroid medicines.

Advair side effects

Get emergency medical help if you have any of these signs of an allergic reaction to Advair: hives; difficulty breathing; swelling of your face, lips, tongue, or throat. Call your doctor at once if you have any of these serious side effects:

· bronchospasm (wheezing, chest tightness, trouble breathing);

· fast or uneven heart beats, restless feeling, tremor;

· fever, chills, stabbing chest pain, cough with yellow or green mucus;

· blurred vision, eye pain, or seeing halos around lights;

· white patches or sores inside your mouth or on your lips; or

· worsening asthma symptoms.

Less serious Advair side effects include:

· headache, dizziness;

· nausea, vomiting, diarrhea;

· dry mouth, nose, or throat;

· stuffy nose, sinus pain, cough, sore throat; or

· hoarseness or deepened voice.

This is not a complete list of side effects and others may occur. Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088.

See also: Advair side effects (in more detail)

What other drugs will affect Advair?

Before using Advair, tell your doctor about all other medicines you use, especially:

· amiodarone (Cordarone);

· a diuretic or "water pill";

· HIV medicines such as atazanavir (Reyataz), ritonavir (Norvir), indinavir (Crixivan), nelfinavir (Viracept), or saquinavir (Invirase);

· an MAO inhibitor such as isocarboxazid (Marplan), tranylcypromine (Parnate), phenelzine (Nardil), rasagiline (Azilect), or selegiline (Eldepryl, Emsam);

· an antidepressant such as amitriptyline (Elavil, Vanatrip, Limbitrol), desipramine (Norpramin), fluoxetine (Prozac), nefazodone, or imipramine (Tofranil)

· antibiotics such as clarithromycin (Biaxin) or telithromycin (Ketek);

· antifungal medications such as ketoconazole (Nizoral) or itraconazole (Sporanox); or

· a beta-blocker such as atenolol (Tenormin), carvedilol (Coreg), metoprolol (Lopressor, Toprol), and others.

This list is not complete and there may be other drugs that can interact with Advair. Tell your doctor about all the prescription and over-the-counter medications you use. This includes vitamins, minerals, herbal products, and drugs prescribed by other doctors. Do not start using a new medication without telling your doctor.

Adipex-P--types of drugs

What is Adipex-P?

Adipex-P (phentermine) is a stimulant that is similar to an amphetamine. Adipex-P is an appetite suppressant that affects the central nervous system.

Adipex-P is used togther with diet and exercise to treat obesity (overweight) in people with risk factors such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, or diabetes.

Adipex-P may also be used for other purposes not listed in this medication guide.

Important information about Adipex-P

Taking Adipex-P together with other diet medications such as fenfluramine (Phen-Fen) or dexfenfluramine (Redux) can cause a rare fatal lung disorder called pulmonary hypertension. Do not take Adipex-P with any other diet medications without your doctor's advice.

Adipex-P may impair your thinking or reactions. Be careful if you drive or do anything that requires you to be alert. Drinking alcohol can increase certain side effects of this medicine.

Adipex-P is only part of a complete program of treatment that may also include diet, exercise, and weight control. Follow your diet, medication, and exercise routines very closely.

Adipex-P may be habit-forming and should be used only by the person it was prescribed for. Never share Adipex-P with another person, especially someone with a history of drug abuse or addiction. Keep track of the amount of medicine used from each new bottle. Adipex-P is a drug of abuse and you should be aware if anyone is using your medicine improperly or without a prescription. Do not stop using Adipex-P suddenly, or you could have unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. Ask your doctor how to avoid withdrawal symptoms when you stop using this medicine.

Before taking Adipex-P

Do not use Adipex-P if you have taken an MAO inhibitor such as furazolidone (Furoxone), isocarboxazid (Marplan), phenelzine (Nardil), rasagiline (Azilect), selegiline (Eldepryl, Emsam), or tranylcypromine (Parnate) in the last 14 days. Serious, life threatening side effects can occur if you use Adipex-P before the MAO inhibitor has cleared from your body.

Taking Adipex-P together with other diet medications such as fenfluramine (Phen-Fen) or dexfenfluramine (Redux) can cause a rare fatal lung disorder called pulmonary hypertension. Do not take Adipex-P with any other diet medications without your doctor's advice.

You should not take Adipex-P if you are allergic to it, or if you have:

· coronary artery disease (hardening of the arteries);

· heart disease;

· severe or uncontrolled high blood pressure;

· overactive thyroid;

· glaucoma;

· if you have a history of drug or alcohol abuse; o

· if you are allergic to other diet pills, amphetamines, stimulants, or cold medications.

If you have any of these other conditions, you may need a Adipex-P dose adjustment or special tests:

· high blood pressure;

· diabetes; or

· a thyroid disorder.

FDA pregnancy category C. It is not known whether Adipex-P will harm an unborn baby. Tell your doctor if you are pregnant or plan to become pregnant while using Adipex-P. Phentermine can pass into breast milk and may harm a nursing baby. You should not breast-feed while taking Adipex-P. Do not give this medication to a child younger than 16 years old.

See also: Adipex-P pregnancy and breastfeeding warnings (in more detail)

Adipex-P may be habit-forming and should be used only by the person it was prescribed for. Never share this medicine with another person, especially someone with a history of drug abuse or addiction. Keep the medication in a place where others cannot get to it.

How should I take Adipex-P?

Take Adipex-P exactly as prescribed by your doctor. Do not take in larger or smaller amounts or for longer than recommended. Follow the directions on your prescription label.

It is best to take Adipex-P on an empty stomach before breakfast or within 2 hours after breakfast.

To prevent sleep problems, take Adipex-P early in the day, no later than 6:00 pm.

Talk with your doctor if you have increased hunger or if you otherwise think the medication is not working properly. Taking more of Adipex-P will not make it more effective and can cause serious, life-threatening side effects.

Adipex-P should be taken only for a short time, such as a few weeks.

Do not stop taking Adipex-P suddenly, or you could have unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. Ask your doctor how to avoid withdrawal symptoms when you stop using Adipex-P.

Store at room temperature away from moisture and heat.

Keep track of the amount of medicine used from each new bottle. Adipex-P is a drug of abuse and you should be aware if anyone is using your medicine improperly or without a prescription.

See also: Adipex-P dosage (in more detail)

What happens if I miss a dose?

Take the missed dose as soon as you remember. Skip the missed dose if it is almost time for your next scheduled dose. Do not take extra medicine to make up the missed dose.

What happens if I overdose?

Seek emergency medical attention or call the Poison Help line at 1-800-222-1222. An overdose of Adipex-P can be fatal.

Overdose symptoms may include confusion, hallucinations, panic, feeling hostile or aggressive, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach cramps, irregular heartbeat, rapid breathing, overactive reflexes, confusion, hallucinations, seizure (convulsions), feeling light-headed, or fainting.

What should I avoid while taking Adipex-P?

Drinking alcohol can increase certain side effects of Adipex-P. Phentermine may impair your thinking or reactions. Be careful if you drive or do anything that requires you to be alert.

Adipex-P side effects

Get emergency medical help if you have any of these signs of an allergic reaction to Adipex-P: hives; difficulty breathing; swelling of your face, lips, tongue, or throat. Call your doctor at once if you have a serious side effect such as:

· feeling short of breath, even with mild exertion;

· chest pain, feeling like you might pass out;

· swelling in your ankles or feet;

· pounding heartbeats or fluttering in your chest;

· confusion or irritability, unusual thoughts or behavior;

· feelings of extreme happiness or sadness; or

· dangerously high blood pressure (severe headache, blurred vision, buzzing in your ears, anxiety, confusion, chest pain, shortness of breath, uneven heartbeats, seizure).

Less serious Adipex-P side effects may include:

· feeling restless or hyperactive;

· headache, dizziness, tremors;

· sleep problems (insomnia);

· dry mouth or an unpleasant taste in your mouth;

· diarrhea or constipation, upset stomach; or

· increased or decreased interest in sex, impotence.

This is not a complete list of side effects and others may occur. Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088.

See also: Adipex-P side effects (in more detail)

What other drugs will affect Adipex-P?

Tell your doctor about all other medicines you use, especially:

· blood pressure medications;

· insulin or oral diabetes medication;

· guanethidine (Ismelin); or

· an antidepressant such as citalopram (Celexa), fluoxetine (Prozac, Sarafem, Symbyax), paroxetine (Paxil), sertraline (Zoloft), and others.

This list is not complete and other drugs may interact with Adipex-P. Tell your doctor about all medications you use. This includes prescription, over-the-counter, vitamin, and herbal products. Do not start a new medication without telling your doctor.